The age of the McCumber Agreement was tremendously difficult for the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa. It was a time of deep political divide, normalized racial discrimination, abject economic poverty, and a devastating loss of land. In the absence of Chief Little Shell, who had led desperate followers into Montana to eke out a living, Chief Red Thunder was left in charge of the Grand Council. Tensions were high, especially between the tribe and the federal government.

The federal government’s treatment of the Chippewas was harsh. So much land had been lost that the tribe had to split up. Families were separated and the political power of the tribe was diminished, the Grand Council’s loyalties divided. For years after, money was promised but rarely, if ever, seen. Those who were excluded from the roll of tribal members, likely because they were forced off the land, were unable to draw rations or collect annuities, which were doled out by the Bureau of Indian Affairs Indian agent or superintendent. The drastically decreased land base resulted in tribal citizens becoming mostly dependent upon the federal government for basic necessities like health care, education, and food. Of course, this ties back to Indian policy, which was committed to forced assimilation. In this case, the necessary resources were under the authority of the BIA, who favored tribal citizens more willing to conform, leaving others to starve. Some traditionalists adhered to the ancient, cultural ways and retained the Anishinaabe teachings despite the bleak situation.